The Gender of Death in Art

"It is our perception of death which decides our answers to all the questions that life puts to us." -Dam Hammarskjold

After discussing the connection between the gender of the word "death" and its representation as male or female in the artwork of certain cultures, I was curious and began researching. I came across an interesting article, "The Gender of Death: A Cultural History in Art and History" which provides numerous examples of this connection but also points out a few peculiar exceptions. The author Karl S. Guthke presents several other explanations for gendered depictions of death. One is that gender of objects does not predispose individuals to form gendered images of objects.

This argument shaped by Greville Corbet argues that instead, semantic factors he calls "quasi-mythical, folkloric concepts" about abstractions such as death present in a community influence how its members view death. These are often developed very early in the culture's history. Guthke proposes that Graeco-Roman myths and Biblical tales forged the earliest lasting perceptions of the nature of death. For example, in the Bible, Satan is the fallen angel named Samuel while in mythology, Aurora, the Fates, and The Kers were all female representations of death.

When examining how languages without gendered words depict the concept, Guthke found that perceptions were based on semantic categories such as animate/inanimate, human/nonhuman, rational/irrational, strong/weak, a combination of these factors or several others not listed. He argues that these categorizations, formed by perceptions integrated into the cultures centuries and millennia ago, play more of a role in our perception of death than the gender of the word does.

Perhaps the gender of the word influences perceptions because of its literal assignment of gender to the abstraction; I believe the historic preconceptions play a bigger role. For example, in Scandinavian languages, death was masculine until gender disappeared from the language in the Middle Ages; it then became feminine. Once the influence of the grammatical gender was absent, Scandinavians relied on cultural indicators, which originated from the "primitive animism" of the culture's beginnings.

Examples of contradictions in literature and art are present in most languages, but here I will cite only Spanish, French and German cases. In Spanish "la muerte" is feminine, but in both Don Quixote and King Balthasar's Feast, death is represented as a male. In the first, he is a young male actor and in the latter, he is a nobleman with a sword in tow who identifies himself as the son of sin. In German, the piece "The Best Physician" by Alfred Kubin depicts death as a tall, slender woman dressed in a black robe and a large necklace. She is suffocating a dying man by placing her hand over his mouth. However, in German "der Tod" is a masculine word. In French, death is portrayed as a male in several cases despite it's femininity: "la mort." In Jean Grandville's piece "Journey to Eternity" death is a soldier dressed in military garb, a ceremonial headdress and holding a battle sword. He appears to be leading the group of mean behind him to their deaths. These are just a few examples of such contradictions. There are numerous others listed in the article.

This argument seems legitimate and is supported by numerous examples; however, what is excluded from the study is how the numbers compare. It's interesting that he found so many contradictory examples, but how many of these are there in relation to the number of depictions that follow the gender of the word?

The Power of Reading: The Comprehension Hypothesis

Growing up. we always heard from our teachers and parents that it's important to read recreationally. But aside from gaining pop culture knowledge, is it really all that beneficial? Numerous studies argue, yes. This finding is far from surprising, but what I found interesting about the article,"Does the Power of Reading Apply to All Languages?" in the California based magazine, Language, is the examination of how reading affected students of 1st, 2nd, and Heritage Languages (HL). The article was a mapping of recent studies supporting the Comprehension Hypothesis which argues that we learn a language by understanding it (that's where reading comprehension comes in).

For 1st language learners, researchers examined several different languages. In a study by Shu, Anderson, and Zahng (1995), results showed that Chinese students who engaged in leisure reading had a stronger grasp of difficult vocabulary. Also, Mandarin speakers in Taiwan scored higher on standardized testing when they increased time spent reading for fun (Lee 1996). In Venezuela, Rodriquez and Trujillo (1996) found that by providing students with a stocked library, they students read more and thus improved their levels of reading comprehension and vocabulary.

When learning Heritage Languages, students who read recreational materials such as magazines, comics, and novels showed higher proficiency. Korean children who read such materials provided by their parents were more proficient than those who did not. However, here it is important to note that other factors are at play here. For example, the regularity which parents communicate with their children in the HL, and the children's desire to speak the HL play a large role in aiding or hindering their proficiency levels. Nonetheless, these studies assert that reading is the single most important factor. Schan, Hopkins, and Vojr (1985) reported that Spanish speaking children who read in Spanish 45 minutes a week for 8.5 months improved their reading speeds and vocabulary in Spanish.

As expected, in foreign language or 2nd language learning, the same theory holds. Day and Hitosugi's study showed that university Japanese language students that read children's books in Japanese for 10 weeks significantly improved their reading comprehension.

As supported by numerous studies conducted with 1st, 2nd, and Heritage Language learners, reading recreationally improves vocabulary, comprehension, reading speed, and overall literacy. So what does this mean for our education system? All schools should have sufficient libraries. A study conducted by Krashen et al this year showed that having 500 books or more in a library proved to increase the rate of recreational reading and overall reading test scores for 10 year-olds in the U.S. By providing access to books, we are opening doors for children to improve literacy, thus it is an immediate necessity.

But what do you think? These studies serve as concrete evidence supporting my P.O.V., but are the other factors such as parents' role more important in your opinion?

Source:

"Does the Power of Reading Apply to All Languages?" Language.. May 2010. pgs. 24-27.

New generation aims to maintain French Breton language

Language Loss and Revival Case Study: Bretagne, France

In the Northwestern region of France, in the province of Brittany (Bretagne), there has been a renewed interest in the revival of the formerly dominant regional language, Breton. It is a Celtic language and a descendant from the Celtic British language which was first brought to the region during the Middle Ages. Over time, it was influenced by French and Latin, and today it is a fluid, Celtic language. Listen to a sample in this video (the Breton anthem).

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XCDZtYkfhjQ

In the latter part of the MIddle Ages, Breton was replaced by Latin and then French in high society. Thus, the language became a popular language spoken mainly by the plebeians of society. To this day, French remains the sole language of the Republic of France. In 1880 and until the mid 1950s, Breton was actually banned from schools, and citizens of Brittany were humiliated and punished gravely for speaking the language. Residents refrained from using it, even at home. This persecution greatly hurt the language. In less than a century, the number of speakers of Breton declined by 80%. Today around 13% of the region's population (about 200,000 people) speak the language. Historian Fanch Broudich claims it is the only language in history to have declined in use so dramatically in such a short period of time.

However, today, the younger generations have a renewed interest in learning about their Breton heritage. A young girl interviewed said, "To defend our culture, we have to speak Breton." It is seen as a "resistance to globalization" and a way to reconnect with cultural identity. In the 1970s, a community of concerned Breton elders and parents created the Diwan school system. These schools use Breton as the language of instruction and often do no begin teaching French until age 7. By age 10, the two languages are taught at equal frequencies. These immersion schools are very effective at producing Breton speakers, and the revival of the language has been seen as a success. The problem remains in the sheer numbers of Brittany citizens who are not learning the language.

I wanted to write about this subject because I always find it interesting to learn about small different cultural communities that are often neglected or unexposed in our general world view. Also, I love to learn of examples where language revival is successful because I think it's a very important issue.

Sources:
http://www.omniglot.com/writing/breton.htm

http://icdbl.org/saozg/Diwan_Intro.php

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c0vMxu1bUq8 (al Jazeera report)

Just some fun examples of Chinglish.

Chinglish: To Eradicate or to Preserve?

In a recent NY Times article, I discovered an important and new point of view on Chinglish, as it is used in China. Chinglish is the fusion language of Chinese and English (much like Franglais and Spanglish). It is prominent in China on street signs, restaurant menus, and other public places and things such as drinks. For example, there exists "The Jew's Ear Juice" and clothing sizes representing large that are instead "fatso" or "lard bucket." These horrid translations are often humorous, but on a more serious note, they are embarrassing, unprofessional, and often unsuccessful at communicating important messages. For English speakers trying to get around Beijing, confusing signs such as this one that reads "Because if the tourist does not obey the staff to manage or contrary holds, Does, all consequences are proud" which is supposed to instruct visitors the entry requirements for a park, do not serve their purpose but merely serve as an embarrassing reminder that the government is not appropriately handling translations.

However, despite the inconvenience and confusion these mistranslations cause native English speakers, some Chinese are strong supporters of their existence. Oliver Lutz Radtke, a former German radio personality and expert on Chinglish argues that the fusion language provides insight into how Chinese people think and the importance of Chinese language structure, as seen in the attempted translations. He said, “If you standardize all these signs, you not only take away the little giggle you get while strolling in the park but you lose a window into the Chinese mind." They reveal the poetic nature of the language. For example, instead of warning, "stay off the grass" some signs read "The Little Grass Is Sleeping. Please Don’t Disturb It." A quick Google search revealed a Facebook groups calling to "Save Chinglish!" and also this website, http://chinglish.com/main, that is the home of the Chinese-English Chamber of Commerce that calls Chinglish the "new approach to language and trade."

Regardless, the government, with the help of volunteers, has been documenting these mistakes and attempting to correct them. This process began in 2001 when China was chosen to host the 2008 Olympics, and in 2002, the Beijing Tourism Bureau created a hotline that allows English speaking residents and visitors to report mistranslations. Since then, over 400,000 street signs and 1,300 restaurant menus have been replaced. As Beijing becomes ever more important as an international business capitol, the Chinese government sees the need to make the city more accessible and professional-looking for English speaking visitors.

According to Wikipedia (I must admit, not the best source, so please excuse me if the information isn't totally correct, and please correct me if you are familiar with Chinese!!) mistranslations are often due to major differences between the Chinese and English languages. For example, in Chinese there is no equivalent for the word "the," so on signs, it is often used excessively or not at all. Also, commas in Chinese are used without a conjunction and periods are only used to indicated the end of a train of thought, so they aren't used until the end of a passage in most cases. This difference explains the misuse of commas and periods in translations.

It's interesting to me to think that there are people out there fighting for the preservation of this modern, hybrid language. To me, it seems that the prevalence of Chinglish in Beijing is more of an inconvenience than anything else, and sadly I cannot agree with Radtke who sees Chinglish as an endangered language that deserves to be preserved. Although, I do enjoy finding humorous examples online. What do you think? Does it qualify as a real language, and if so, is it worth preserving?


Sources:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6052800.stm
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/03/world/asia/03chinglish.html?pagewanted=2
http://chinglish.com/main

Here is an example of vandalized bilingual road signs in a Flemish town.

Belgium Unraveled by Language

For the second time in the past 5 years, Belgium's government has fallen as we know it. Yves Leterme, the Christian Democrat prime minister, just resigned after only five months. However, it is no cause for alarm in Belgium because it is the third resignation in the past 3 years. The conflict between the Dutch-speaking Flanders to the north and French-speaking Wallonia in the south is so extreme that government bodies cannot operate successfully. In federal parliament last week, 150 deputies chanted, "Long live free Flanders, may Belgium die."

For the past 30 years, the government has unstably functioned to unite the nation, but still there is little Belgian pride. A Flander commented: "There's no loyalty to a country called Belgium. There has never been a country that has lasted so long in conditions like this." The country essentially runs as two separate nations; there exist no national political parties, no national newspaper, no national TV channel, and no common school curriculum. The north is flourishing economically while the south is deep in debt and the two groups normally vote on opposite ends of the political spectrum. Every effort is made to avoid interaction between the groups. School children are educated on separate floors and with a different curriculum and universities are separated on the basis of language.

The country of 10.5 million people, is 58% Dutch speaking and 31% French speaking. For the most part, the two groups live in different geographic regions, but as this changes, conflict arises. French-speaking middle class families are moving out to the Flemish-dominated suburbs as Brussels becomes increasingly crowded; here, they face animosity and aggression. Friction, however, is greatest in the city itself in areas where the Flanders and Wallonia live side by side. Although both sides agree that violent conflict is not likely, they do admit that emotions are tense on both sides. Separatists have started defacing bilingual street signs. In the city's governmental structure, the two sides use legislation and restrictions to undermine each other. For example, proceedings conducted in the town of Linkebeek must be in Flemish even though 13 of the 15 councillors are native French speakers.

The importance of this issue is that language is at the heart of it. I was shocked to discover that language could be so powerful; it essentially toppled the Belgian government. As said by the Ian Traynor, the author of the article, "Language is the fundamental flaw at the core of Belgium's existential crisis, taking on the role that race, religion, or ethnicity play in other conflict-riven societies. The country operates on the basis of linguistic apartheid, which infects everything from public libraries to local and regional government, the education system, the political parties, national television, the newspapers, even football teams."

What do you think? Does Belgium have potential for reconciliation? Are they addressing these issues incorrectly? Or is a divorce in the making?

Effectiveness of Foreign Language Learning

In a Washington Post Local Living article, Jay Matthews boldly argues that learning and teaching foreign languages in middle school and high school is a waste of time and funds. His main argument is that students are able to easily breeze through language courses in high school with very little effort and high marks. Most high schools don't require foreign language study for graduation, and those that do usually only require 2 years. This is the same for colleges, they traditionally only ask their applicants to have completed two years. I'd have to agree with Matthews on the point that two years is not nearly enough time to gain any level of proficiency in a foreign language. Extended study and immersion are necessary to obtain fluency.

Also, many students choose to study languages that they are not likely to use often (or ever in the case of Latin) for interactions with other native speakers. They simply wish to fulfill a requirement. For example, Matthews studied German and Latin in high school but quickly forgot it all because he didn't continue his studies in college or practice speaking with anyone. On the flipside, students who are determined to learn a foreign language can successfully do so with the help of language instruction in high school.

For example, I knew that I wanted to be as fluent as possible in French to be able to more easily communicate with my older relatives in Lebanon. I studied it from 7th-12th grades in school and then continued my studies at Stanford. I also participated in an immersion program in Montreal with a host family two summers ago (although it's questionable if that helped or hurt because the Quebecois accent is ridiculous!). I can confidently say now that I am fluent. I used what I learned in the classroom as a base and then continued learning at home by reading French books, listening to the music, and practicing with my father. I can't really say that I learned French strictly through my school's program, but at the same time, it taught me the integral basics of grammar and vocabulary. I doubt would have been motivated enough to learn the language from scratch on my own.

Although these programs aren't churning out fluent speakers by the time of graduation, I think it's too strong of a statement to say that they're useless. For those learning Spanish, even small amounts can prove to be beneficial, so studying it in high school certainly isn't a waste of time. Also, studying foreign languages opens doors. If I hadn't studied French, I wouldn't have been eligible for the study abroad scholarship in Montreal, and I probably never would have visited the city. After my stay there, I decided to apply to McGill University and seriously considered attending the school (but who was I kidding-choosing between sunny CA or snow-covered Montreal...easy choice).

So what do you think? Are our foreign language programs so bad that they should just be eliminated, or is there value to be found in them?

See http://voices.washingtonpost.com/class-struggle/2010/04/why_waste_time_on_a_foreign_la.html

Endangered Languages

In the New York Times, I stumbled across an interesting article about the prevalence of endangered languages in New York City. Experts estimate that over 800 languages are spoken in NYC and around 400 are considered endangered; Daniel Kaufman, a professor of linguistics at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York said, "We’re sitting in an endangerment hot spot where we are surrounded by languages that are not going to be around even in 20 or 30 years.” These endangered languages are from Indonesia, Belize, Tajikistan, Poland, and more. They include but are not limited to Aramaic from the Semitic family; Bukhari (a Bukharian Jewish language, which has more speakers in Queens than in Uzbekistan or Tajikistan); Chamorro (from the Mariana Islands); Irish Gaelic; Kashubian (from Poland); indigenous Mexican languages; Rhaeto-Romanic (spoken in Switzerland); Romany (from the Balkans); and Yiddish. Some of these languages actually have more native speakers in NYC than in their home countries.

In an effort to conserve and revive these languages, Professor Kaufman and several associates have created a non-profit organization called the Endangered Language Alliance (ELA). The group identifies endangered language speakers and brings them into labs to research and record the dying languages. They're mission statement is as follows: “to further the documentation, description, maintenance, and revitalization of threatened and endangered languages, and to educate the public about the causes and consequences of language extinction.”

One specific case highlighted in the video that accompanies the article is the tribal Darfurian language Massalit. The linguists brought in Daowd I. Salih, a Darfurian refugee, to interview. They ask him how to say simple phrases such as "a man holds a fish" in Massalit, and they look for patterns in grammatical formation and vocabulary. They are attempting to record the language for the first time in the hopes of preventing its extinction in Sudan.

Other groups are following suit and joining the fight to revive endangered languages. Speakers of an indigenous language from Belize called Garifuna are offering classes at the Yurumein House Culture Center in the Bronx and the Biko Transformation Center in East Bushwick. A father teaching his young daughters folk songs in the language said, "It’s going to give them a sense of self, to know themselves. The fact that they’re speaking the language is empowerment in itself.”

http://endangeredlanguagealliance.org/main/about

http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/29/nyregion/29lost.html?pagewanted=2

VIDEO: http://video.nytimes.com/video/2010/04/28/nyregion/1247467719180/city-of-endangered-languages.html